A Sictionary of Art Terms And Phrases

Every field of specialized thought has its own jargon, and the art of painting is no exception. People who take up painting are naturally eager to get as much knowledge as they can on the subject, but often find themselves baffled by the obscurity of the language they encounter in art books, articles, and reviews. Even the household dictionary seems to be of little help in unraveling the meaning of many of these expressions. With the rapid expansion of popular interest in painting in recent years, however, there is growing an ever greater need for clarification of such unfamiliar terms as are apt to be found in the average book or periodical dealing with the subject of art. I have, therefore, undertaken to compile here, not only those expressions relating to the practical experience of painting itself, but many that are in the domain of general art criticism as well. Thus, you should find it convenient to refer to this in all of your reading on the subject of art.

Should The Amateur Exhibit His Work?

There is no hard and fast rule about this. Common sense should be the final arbiter. Participation in amateur shows is fine, but it is wise for amateurs to think twice about trying to compete on a professional level. There are unscrupulous galleries which offer an opportunity for anyone to exhibit at a fee, regardless of merit. The temptation is very strong, I realize, and people who fall for the bait can't entirely be blamed. But I have seen the heads of some students turned (it is a fact that critics are generally lenient with people who exhibit for the first time) to the point where they ceased growing—and this is the worst fate that can befall any painter. I would say that the amateur has much more to gain by the enjoyment of painting for its own sake. The hazards and pitfalls, too numerous to mention, that one encounters once he enters the professional domain are, if anything, inhibi-tive of creative growth—unless, of course, he's ready to make a full time job of grappling with its many complexities.

The Importance of Freedom in Drawing

This cannot be stressed enough. It is the object of these exercises to help you gain a sweeping grasp of the action of the figure, consequently you are to ignore all things having no bearing on our present project—contour, or shading, or physical characteristics of any kind. In short, we want the action of the figure, and nothing else. If you can get someone to pose for you, fine. Or if you can get a manikin, so much the better. But none of these are really essential, for all you really need is a good sized mirror. You can use yourself as a model, as many artists have done. Either by standing, sitting or lying in front of the mirror in various positions you have an opportunity, free of all self-consciousness to record what you determine to be the "action" of your pose.

Now, you will observe that the action of the figure gets its first impulse at a point somewhere below the head. It begins by swinging around the head, somewhat as a point of departure— not unlike the way a pitcher starts his wind-up before letting go of the ball. Sometimes this "wind-up" starts at a point under the chin, swinging up over the skull and then coming around and through the figure, twisting in such a way as to capture the spiral-ing effect of tlie figure (if it is standing) as it mounts into space. At other times—depending on one's vantage—this wind-up commences at the back of the head, just under the skull, and swings around in the opposite direction. In a reclining pose it may start just under the ear, either on one side or the other—again depending on the particular position. But if the figure happens to be lying either on its stomach or its back, then the wind-up reverts to that which we use for the upright figure.

All this may seem a little complicated to you at first, and your first attempts are almost certain to be awkward. But if you've ever played golf or tennis you will undoubtedly remember how difficult at first it was for you to get used to the proper grip and swing of the racquet or club, but how after a while it seemed the most natural thing in the world for you to do it correctly. If you apply this same psychology to your art studies the results are sure to come.

Portrait Painting - Some of The Things You Should Understand in Posing Your Subject

Here you must establish something very clearly in your mind. As soon as the head leans to one side, its vertical axis shifts. You must always see the imaginary line, or axis, running from the crown to the chin, and any restless shifting of your subject is bound to alter the angle of that axis. If you don't watch out for this you're going to run into trouble. To safeguard against this you must do two things:

FIRST, in posing your subject, line up his head with the handle of your brush so that the angle of the brush is exactly the same tilt as you perceive the vertical axis of his head to be. Call your subject's attention to this alignment and explain to him why you are doing it—that if the angle of his head shifts from the position you have established for him, this will throw the whole portrait off. By making him conscious of that angle, you will make it easier for him to keep it although it may be necessary to 'line him up" several times during the course of the sitting.

SECONDLY, you must give your subject frequent rest periods so as to avoid overtaxing him. If you are neglectful about this, there is the danger of his falling asleep or becoming so uncomfortable as to lose interest in the whole project,

Painting in Oil - Sentiment

The picture of a country doctor keeping vigil beside the bed of a young patient in a coma, with the distraught parents standing helplessly by, has a direct appeal to sentiment. The drama that this picture portrays is a very poignant one that is experienced by many families at one time or another. It is very easy to identify oneself with the circumstances, and a feeling of sympathy is readily induced. One can furthermore admire the skill and craftsmanship with which this lifelike scene was painted. But is it art?

This picture is obviously trying to tell a story, and, as such, falls into the category of what we call "illustration." This kind of painting pre-empts the function of the writer, but starts out with one serious disadvantage. It cannot have a plot, such as the writer's story does. We are kept in the dark as to the outcome of the painter's story, and are destined never to know whether the child survives the crisis. Our interest in such a picture cannot be sustained for very long. Once we have finished admiring the painter's skill and exhausted our fund of sentimental curiosity, our attention wanders; and we may never notice the picture again, except in the idlest way.

Protecting Yourself From The Elements Out-of-Doors

When working out-of-doors it is naturally desirable to protect oneself from the heat and glare of the sun. Some seek the shade of a tree; others use an umbrella or wide-brimmed hat. But for some unaccountable reason, many beginners have a tendency to put their work in the shade as well. They turn their easels so that their canvases face far away from the light which makes it hard to see what they are doing. This appears to be an unconscious maneuver on the part of students, and I have never been able to discover why it is done.

While it is true that to turn the canvas into the full glare of the sun may prove difficult on the eyes, as well as cause the paint to soften and run, there is nothing to be gained by working in the dark. Adjust your easel in such a way as to permit the light to fall on your canvas, sort of midway between sun and shade.

What is remarkable about the Color Wheel

What is remarkable about this Color Wheel is the fact that all the colors shown here came out of just five tubes of paint, plus white. Nor is this all that can be accomplished with these few colors, for the range of hues possible from different combinations is almost infinite. The reason we stick to these tubes of paint (alizarin, ultramarine blue, viridian, cadmium yellow light, and cadmium red pale) and do not include such colors as black, yellow ochre, burnt sienna, umber, etc., is that the principle of the Color Wheel is based on that of "prismatic colors" (those which occur in the atmosphere)^ in which the heavier earth colors, such as ochre, sienna and umber, must naturally be excluded. This is obviously also true of black.

Yet, as you can see in the Color Wheel, it is possible to achieve hues strongly resembling the earth colors, while a combination of alizarin and ultramarine will combine to make a more intense black that is at the same.

Follow the rules as much as possible, but don't be rigid about it. Common sense and your own feeling for color are your best guide in resolving any discrepancy between what the rules say you should expect and the results you get. Consequently, when mixing two primaries to get your secondary color you have to take into account the fact that different tubes of paint don't all have the same tinting strength, so that more of one primary is sometimes necessary to produce a satisfactory secondary color. Here again I must remind you that tubes of paint include several other ingredients besides color, and (particularly in the more costly cadmiums) manufacturers will be more sparing in the use of certain pigments than in others.

Painting in Oil: The Palette

As for how to hold the palette, there seems to be some confusion about this. The thumbhole in the palette is a carryover from oldfashioned techniques of painting. It serves no real purpose in present-day work. The most convenient way of painting is to place the palette on some box or cabinet of about table height. Then the hands are free to occupy themselves with brushes, knife, and paint rag. And it generally makes for more comfortable work.

Some people, however, like the feel of holding the palette in the traditional way. If it will make the beginner feel better about his work, then there's no harm in it. The palette is balanced on the left forearm (assuming the painter is righthanded) with the thumb jutting through the hole from underneath. Brushes, knife, and cloth are clutched loosely together in the fist so that any of them can be withdrawn as needed.

Painting in Oil: The Brush

Brushes should never be held as one would a pen or a pencil. This only makes for tightness of work and brings the painter up too close to the canvas. It is best to hold the brush lightly between the finger tips, an inch or so below the ferrule. Balanced this way, the handle of the brush rests against the heel of the palm.

The idea is to treat the brush as though it were an instrument (which it is, but which a lot of people seem to forget) responsive to the most sensitive of impulses from the painter. There must be freedom in the stroking of the paint. When the motion comes from the shoulder it eliminates the possibility of niggling work.

Painting in Oil: How to Sit

If you're tired, or for any reason find it difficult to stand, then, of course, you must sit. But if you have to sit, try using a high stool if you can. There is a definite advantage in this. For one thing, when you're sitting too comfortable in a chair it's not so easy to get up often to move back for a better look at your canvas. It must be remembered that no one looks at a painting at close range unless he is terribly nearsighted. Most people stand off from a work of art in order to judge it in the totality of all its parts. Too much sublety in the painting, especially in the early stages of development, will be lost on the viewer.

Painting FLowers: Peonies

Peonies. Strength is added to this harmony of pale pink peonies by the deep wine red of the flowers in the foreground. The luminous delicacy of the petals is suggested with undefined shadows in an atmospheric violet-blue.

Detail is kept to a minimum. The cool pinks consist of alizarin crimson with a great deal of white. The warmer blossoms at the left were painted with white and vermilion. Alizarin crimson and ultramarine produced the deep red. There is a touch of Mars violet in the darkest shadows.

The background is kept evanescent, using chiefly white with some Prussian blue and umber. For the bowl, ultramarine is the principal color.

Primulas. In early spring, a pot of white primulas was set in a pale pink bowl. The graceful upward thrust of the long stems from their thick bed of large, green leaves formed a lovely natural design that cried out for paint.

The plant was painted just as it stood. It needed no changes to make an interesting composition. The blossoms are pure white with a little greenish shadow. Some strong white impasto was added with the small palette knife.

A soft pinkish background, made with burnt sienna and white, created a pleasant harmony. Stronger values in the foreground were produced by adding a little Prussian blue to the burnt sienna.

Painting with sponges is downright fun

PAINTING ORIGINAL ARTWORK on canvas is one of today's most popular and creative ways to enjoy our leisure time and to improve our artistic skills. No other painting technique puts such a unique and personal stamp on our surroundings, or brings such joy and satisfaction to both the artist and the viewer.

In the past, painting landscapes or floral still-fifes on canvas meant spending many hours in preparation, copying a pattern or drawing, assembling just the right brushes and paints, buying special equipment, painting with slow, deliberate strokes, repainting mistakes and starting over again....

No more! In this book you will discover a new and innovative way to paint quickly and easily using acrylic paints and common household sponges. No brushes needed! No experience required!

Painting with sponges is downright fun-and it frees you from the fear and frustration of making mistakes. Don't like what you've just painted? Spray the area with water and remove it with a clean sponge. It's that easy.

The sponges used to paint the projects in this book are the inexpensive cellulose ones you can find in any grocery, hardware or home improvement store. A natural sea sponge is also used to achieve some interesting effects, such as layers of colorful foliage on trees and bushes.

To tell this is now your business

To tell this is now your business; and the shape of the forehead, the form of the eyes, the line of the nose, and character of the mouth —each studied with care—will help to make the head a likeness, a personality.

But much besides the mere drawing of individual features contributes to this. The interior modeling, the high lights, half tones, and emphatic darks, the arch of the brow, the energetic or calm lines about the nose and mouth, the squareness or curve of the chin, are all elements in the interpretation of the likeness which must not escape the student. The color of the eyes, irrespective of the pupil, may be now indicated; also the depth of color in the mouth, which varies much with age or physical condition; do not suggest it any stronger in color than it appears under the conditions of the light in which the model is placed. In all that you do try to prove, by the result, that you have referred constantly to nature for the effects recorded. This, more than anything else, will be noted to your credit when you come to submit your work to the criticism of the expert, the painter whose own portrait work has gained him reputation Tor truth.

In the first painting turpentine should be used as a medium

In the first painting turpentine should be used as a medium, for it leaves the pigment good in texture and dull of surface—an excellent condition for receiving the second and ultimate paintings, when oil is employed.

Commence by rubbing in the background in its proper value and color. This done, the head may be attacked with a full brush, and with as close a reproduction of the effect it presents to your vision, both in general light and shade, as you are capable of making it. Do not look at first for the highest lights nor for the deepest darks. Half close the eyes, and endeavor to resolve this object to the simplest and most direct impression. Mark the tone of the hair in relation to the face and to the tone behind it. Everything should be reduced to the fact of a background with an object, a spot, of a certain form and color, in front of it. The contour and proportions will announce that it is a head; the subsequent paintings and the definition of the features will tell that it is an individual.

Observe now the most obvious effect of color

Observe now the most obvious effect of color presented by your subject in contrast to the tone that relieves it. State at first the fact of its being fair or dark, ruddy or pale. This is the first impression you will be likely to receive from it, and it is well to proceed with logical sequence. The result will be more potent, more telling—in fact, truer—than it would be if you allowed yourself at the beginning of your work to be attracted by charm of feature or expression. Construct the frame of the building well, and then the ornaments will be an added grace; begin with ornaments and the edifice will be likely to fall. After this first scrutiny, establishing the fact in your mind of the general color aspect of the head against its background, you are ready to paint. We now proceed to actual work.

This is done the worker is about ready to lay it in

The successful accomplishment of the above is by no means as short and easy a work as would appear from the rapid suggestions given. To get a head in good drawing—that is, all its component parts in the right place—requires much concentration and close observation; when, however, this is done the worker is about ready to lay it in.

In order to retain your drawing, and also to familiarize yourself with the forms of the shadows which you have blocked out in charcoal, go over these with a thin tone of burnt sienna and black diluted with turpentine. As this dries readily, the drawing is secured and ready to receive the color.

Place now, if you have not already done so, some drapery or some tone behind—it may only be the dark corner of the room against which you wish the head to be relieved; but all through your work retain the same effect, and study this object, under all circumstances, in its relation to this background.

The following suggestions are made for the painting of a simple head

Some portrait painters are constantly making studies of heads in color merely for the facility they thus acquire in overcoming technical difficulties when painting a portrait. Before starting on the actual work of portraiture, therefore, the following suggestions are made for the painting of a simple head:

Place the subject in an effective position for light and shade, and begin by drawing it in with charcoal. Look first for the character of the mass. Observe if it be oblong or square, round or oval. This should be the first fact to strike you in regard to its drawing; for at present you have nothing to do with features or character—only with bulk. When this is determined the features come next in importance. Do they fill the mass of the face, or are they contracted, placed near together, leaving considerable area of cheek, forehead, and chin? Fix this impression well before attempting to define the forms of these features. This already will stamp the head with a certain personal character, that the definition of each feature, as you proceed, will only emphasize more strongly.

After drawing with care the eyes, nose, and mouth, in their respective spaces, already indicated, you are ready to begin to paint.

The human face presents an area for the study of form and color

The human face presents an area for the study of form and color in the most condensed and most varied combination. The student has here before him tones of elusive subtlety, as well as those of utmost vigor; forms of exquisite outline, and others of rugged strength. The knowledge acquired by a close study of these various qualities, the possibility of becoming acquainted with the resources of the palette under the quiet conditions that indoor work affords, and the attention to outline and modeling which the deliberation of the studio encourages, tend to give one a control of his materials which the distractions of study out of doors will not at first permit.

A glow as subtle as the sky at dawn mantles the young girl's cheek, while for energy of coloring no autumnal tint possesses more vigor than the ruddy flush of health in youth or the bronzed countenance of the traveler in many lands. Catch them on your brush, you who would paint landscape! The portrait painter, pure and simple, has no more need of them than you have yourself. For these, and other reasons which might be given, it is desirable that the student should begin with the study of the head and figure.

It is the intention in this book to be practical, to speak as simply as possible of the technical side of painting; for it is assumed that the reader has already some knowledge of drawing.

What is the fact that the representation of the human figure?

The fact that the representation of the human figure is generally regarded as the most advanced step in the painter's art seems to invest it with unusual fascination for the beginner. Certainly the number of persons who deliberately choose a course of training that prepares them for painting from life is constantly increasing. These may not all succeed as figure painters, but the advantage of having worked from life will be felt in whatever direction their taste may eventually lead them; so that not only those who contemplate devoting their energies to this particular branch, but anyone who intends to take it up professionally, will do well to begin by entering on the course of study which, while absolutely necessary for portrait and figure painting, will also be found most advantageous in other branches of art. This system is indeed recommended at the best schools abroad, whether the ultimate object be landscape or figure work.

The reason is obvious. The French school—whose influence predominates strongly in America—regards both drawing and construction as essentials to the study of all the graphic arts; and these are perhaps more readily acquired through regular academic training, in the case of the landscape painter, than by confining his practice entirely to outdoor work. From this standpoint, then, these chapters on portrait and figure painting should be of value to all students; and it will be the aim of the writer to make them so. Further, it will be well to insist on the value of this kind of preparation for all who desire to become painters.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 7

STUDIO - (Ital.) The working-room of an artist.
STUMP - A prepared roll of soft leather, or paper, cut to a point and used in drawing to soften or blend the strokes of charcoal or crayon.
SURFACE LIGHT - Distinct from high light. A soft effect of light falling athwart the surface of an object, by which its texture is indicated.
TONE - This must not be confused with color, but may be defined broadly as a result of the harmonious combination of colors.
TORSO - (Ital.) The trunk of the body, generally applied to a dismembered statue.
TRANSPARENT - The reverse of opaque. A shadow is transparent when the tone is in just relation with its light.
SCUMBLE - This process, while somewhat similar, is the opposite of glazing, and consists of the application of a thin wash of opaque color diluted by oil, to the surface of a painting. Its effect is to change the general tone, and render less distinct the objects in the picture. The painting must be dry before the scumble is applied.
VEHICLE - See Medium.
VALUE - The term "value" in art signifies the comparative relation of tones irrespective of color.
WASH - In water-color painting, the flow of the transparent color upon the paper.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 6

PLANES - The constructive surfaces of an object. In the head, for example, the temple is one plane, the forehead another.
QUALITY - The harmonious clement of tone and color which pervades a picture, but which is almost too subtle and intangible to be defined opposed to crudeness.
QUANTITY - The elements of weight and space in a composition.
RELIEF - The quality which gives the impression to an object of being a corporeal substance with the corporeal attributes of surface and projection.
REFLECTED LIGHT - A light received by an object from a secondary source, and not from direct illumination.
STUDY - A close and faithful transcription from nature, as a means of training, but not necessarily of much esthetic quality.
SKETCH - A word of many meanings. A delineation of a subject in color or black and white, without the care of a study, but with the mere vigor of an impression. A preparatory painting on a small scale of a subject to be treated much larger, and used by the artist to experiment upon in order to establish his effects.
SUBJECT - The theme represented by a painting.
STIPPLING - A method of working by little touches like dots, sometimes resorted to in water-color painting and frequently employed in miniature work.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 5

MEDIUM - Any vehicle used to facilitate the union or mixing of colors.
MONOCHROME - Any graphic production executed in one color only.
MODEL - To interpret form by light and shade; also to mold in clay.
MANNERISM - Any marked manner or peculiarity adopted by a painter and constantly repeated in his work.
NUDE - Although the same word as naked, there is a shade of difference in its association with art which makes it preferable to the latter word. "The Nude" in art, refers merely to undraped figures.
OILING-OUT - The application of oil to a painting when dry, for the purpose of restoring its brilliancy of tone, and also to soften the surface so as to receive fresh color.
PASTICIIE - (Fr.) A term denoting an imitation or plagiarism of another's stele.
PIGMENT - The actual substance of which color is composed. The paint itself.
PORTE-CRAYON - Crayon-holder.
PRIMARY Col.oRs - Red, yellow and blue. These colors are those from which other colors may be made, but which no combination of other colors can produce. The colors directly produced from mixing these primary colors are called secondary colors.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 4

HANDLING - The mechanical manner of interpreting objects. The manual act of painting, brush work.
HARD - A rigidity of technique-the reverse of suavity of touch. As applied to a whole picture it signifies an unsympathetic and mechanical execution.
HATCHING - The laying on of strokes of brush or pencil in parallel lines, which are crossed and recrossed in the deeper shadows. This is most frequently used in crayon, pen-and-ink drawing, fresco work, and miniature painting.
HIGH LIGHT - The lightest parts of a picture, caused by the direct light falling upon objects.
IMPASTO - (Ital.) The manner of laying on the color in a picture with a view to the respective textures to be represented, but irrespective of light, shade, or color. Also refers to the thickness of the paint.
LABORED - When the effort by which a painting is produced is too evident, it is said to be labored.
LOCAL - The local color of an object is the nominal tint by which it is known, uninfluenced by any accidental conditions.
LAY-IN - The first application of pigment to a canvas is called the lay-in. A preparation for painting.
MASSES - In regarding an object in broad effects of light and shade without the introduction of any detail whatever, it is said to be seen in masses.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 3

EXECUflON - The technical method of producing a work of art.
FINISH - This is a term, generally accepted as signifying a mere elaboration of the details of a picture, which is sometimes irrespective of consistent results. Finish, in a fuller sense, is the just and harmonious completion of a picture.
Foxy - When an excess of reddish-brown is observable in a picture it is said to be foxy.
FRESCO - The practice of painting on walls, while they are still fresh. (Fresco, Ital.)
FLAT - The lack of modeling and relief, in painting.
FROTTÉ - (Fr.) The first preparation of a picture in one tone of thin color as a groundwork. Derived from the French word, signifying to rub.
Fix - To attach the particles of charcoal, crayon or pencil to the paper in a drawing so that it shall not rub, or become defaced.
GLAZE - The application of transparent color thinned with oil, to parts or the whole of a picture in order to modify the tone or color. The paint must be dry before glazing can be employed.
GENRE - (Fr.) A French word meaning literally sort or kind, but used in art to express a representation of domestic life, or a subject telling a story of ordinary existence.
GRANDEUR - The quality of a lofty style or nobility of conception in art.
HALF-TINT - An intermediate tone in painting.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 2

COLORIST - The term which designates an artist who excels in coloring.
CONNOISSEUR - One who understands a work of art, a judge, literally, a knower.
Copy - A reproduction made by hand from some painting or other work of art.
CRUDE - A raw or immature condition of work in a picture.
COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENT - The opposite of actual measurement; measuring by comparative proportions of given objects, selecting one as a standard with which others are compared to ascertain their relative proportions.
DRY - A flat and unsympathetic manner of painting. A lack of technical freedom and address.
DETAIL - Literally opposed to mass. The parts in a picture demanding and receiving careful attention and finish.
EFFECT - The impression produced by a work of art. This may be secured by a studied or unstudied effort, but whatever strikes the beholder's senses as a dominant feature in a picture or sculpture, be it color, light and shade, or mere force of grouping, may be spoken of as its ejfect.

DEFINITIONS OF ART TERMS -- Part 1

AQUAREL - A water-color painting.
AMATEUR - A lover of art. One also who practices art in an unprofessional way.
ALLEGORY - A painting possessed of a significance removed from the actual. Allegorical painting is somewhat literary in its character, an artistic interpretation of a parable, as it were.
ACCESSORIES - The natural and secondary objects introduced into a picture with an artistic purpose.
ACCENT - Any emphasis of light or dark in a picture.
BREADTH - The result attained in presenting an aspect of nature in a large and simple manner.
BALANCE - The proper disposition of quantities in a composition. See Quantity.
BLOOM - The cloudiness which affects certain colors and varnishes, and which is the result of damp.
BUST - The head and shoulders, including the breasts.
COMPOSITION - The disposition and arrangement of whatever objects and effects of light and shade go to make up the picture.
CARTOON - Derived from the Italian word cartone, signifying a heavy paper or cardboard upon which painters frequently made their first drawings or compositions before transferring them to the canvas or wall for which they were ultimately intended. A preparatory drawing on paper.

In the shadows add raw umber and burnt sienna

In the shadows add raw umber and burnt sienna. The branches are rather gray than brown in their general aspect, and may be painted with raw umber, ivory black, white, cobalt, and light red; adding yellow ochre in the lighter tones if needed, and substituting burnt sienna for light red. Draw the stems and branches carefully, using flat pointed sable brushes for the small dark accents and touches of light.
Flowers are peculiarly applicable for decorative purposes, and arc also used in various conventionalized forms with excellent effect.

Instead of copying the designs of others, endeavor to compose them for yourself.

In doing this, always make the studies directly from Nature first, and then arrange and compose as you wish, keeping the original study as a guide, and making all compositions and designs upon a separate canvas. This is excellent practice, and should any special talent for designing be developed, it is well to encourage it, as original designs have a practical value.

Patience and persevering practice are the only means by which any thing real can be accomplished in Art. Our design has been, by practical hints and timely. suggestions, to lead the student in the right way, thus teaching him to study nature and observe for himself.

Bright warm greens are made with Antwerp blue

For the different shades of green seen in the leaves of plants we can only give general directions, as the variety and subtlety of these tones can only be expressed by combining, in their proper proportions, certain colors.

It will of course be of service to those without experience to know what these colors are. Just how much of each is needed can only be learned by practice.

Bright warm greens are made with Antwerp blue, cadmium and white, qualified by ivory black and light red, or vermilion. The shadows are painted with the same colors, with the addition of raw umber, and substituting burnt sienna for light red.

Cool, bluish greens are made with permanent blue instead of Antwerp blue, and combined with the same colors given above, except that madder lake is used in place of vermilion or light red.  A great deal of black is used with these greens, and very little cadmium.  For very light warm yellow greens, use light zinober green, white with light cadmium, vermilion and ivory-black.

Red flowers and Blue flowers

Red flowers are of so many different shades that it is only possible to give a general idea of colors to be used in painting them.

For deep red flowers use madder lake, ivory black, yellow ochre, vermilion and white, adding burnt sienna or Indian red in the deeper shadows. The vermilion and yellow ochre may be omitted in cooler tones, and a little cobalt added if necessary.

Those of bright scarlet are painted with vermilion, madder lake, yellow ochre, and white qualified by a very little ivory black.More vermilion and less madder lake are used according to the tone of red to be produced. In shading use raw umber, light red, madder lake and ivory black, adding a little cobalt if necessary.

Blue flowers may be painted with Antwerp blue or permanent blue, according to the tone desired. The Antwerp blue is combined with white, light cadmium, raw umber, madder lake, and ivory black, with burnt sienna added to the other colors of the shadows. This produces a warm greenish blue.

The cool purplish blues are made with permanent blue or cobalt, mixed with white, a little raw umber and ivory black, adding to these colors madder lake or light red in the shadows.

Yellow flowers are painted with cadmium combined with white and ivory black

Yellow flowers are painted with cadmium combined with white and ivory black. In shading use cadmium, yellow ochre, raw umber, light red and ivory black.

In very deep yellow flowers use orange cadmium and in those of medium tone a medium cadmium combined with yellow ochre both in lights and shadows.

Burnt sienna and madder lake are used in shading very deep yellow flowers in addition to the other colors given.

For purple flowers use madder lake, permanent blue, or cobalt, with white and ivory black, adding yellow ochre for a warmer tone. In shading use the same colors, with the addition of raw umber and burnt sienna if necessary.

The high lights are painted with madder lake, cobalt, white and a very little ivory black.

Water is generally darker and grayer

Water varies so that it is impossible to give special rules for painting it.  Observe always that water refects the general effect of its surroundings.

Under a blue sky the ocean is deep blue, while stormy clouds are reflected in its surface, turning it gray. The effect of dark blue water may be painted with Antwerp blue, raw umber, ivory black, madder lake, yellow dchre and white, used in the proper proportions, employing in addition burnt sienna in the shadows.

Water is generally darker and grayer than the objects which are reflected in it, though many exceptions occur to this rule.

Green in middle distance are warmer and less gray

Green in middle distance are warmer and less gray, and use for these permanent blue, cadmium, light red, raw umber and ivory black.

The foreground greens are bright and warm, with sometimes accidental, cool, blue lights, and are made with Antwerp blue, cadmium, white, ivory black and vermilion, adding raw umber and burnt sienna in the shadows. Trunks and branches of trees are rather gray than brown in their general effect, though rich in their shadows. Paint these with raw umber, ivory black, silver white, cobalt, or permanent blue and burnt sienna, adding yellow ochre in the warmer touches and substituting madder lake for burnt sienna in the cooler tones. The proportions of the colors must of course be varied to suit the special character of the trees painted, using less black or white or red, etc., as the necessity suggests.

Distant greens are generally gray and cool in quality

The tones of the middle distance occupy a place between.

A few leaves in the foreground may be drawn in detail. The trunks of trees should be treated in the same way, and the small branches drawn in with a fine pointed brush where they are most prominently seen, and merely suggested in other parts.

A few combinations of color that may prove useful to the beginner are here given.

For blue skies use: Cobalt, silver white, a little light cadmium, a little madder lake and enough ivory black to give quality. Clouds are painted with silver white, yellow ochre, ivory black, light red and cobalt, adding madder lake in the cooler tones, and burnt sienna in the deep shadows.

Distant greens are generally gray and cool in quality.  For these use permanent blue, cadmium, silver white, madder lake, and  ivory black, adding burnt sienna in the shadows.

The meaning of the term "value" in Art has already been explained

In painting landscapes from nature, two most important things to be considered are the study of the Values and Comparative Measurement.

The meaning of the term "value" in Art has already been explained, and too much care can not be given in thus ascertaining the relations of each tone to its surroundings.

The practice of comparative measurement consists of establishing some one object in the picture as a standard of measurement by which all other objects are compared, in order to ascertain their relative height, breadth or thickness.

For instance, take a tree in the middle distance and compare the size of its trunk with the trunks of trees in the foreground, and see how much larger the latter appear, though in reality the same size.

The same general principles apply to landscape as to figure painting

After studying near or foreground subjects for a time, extend your range, and endeavor to bring into your studies objects in the middle distance in their proper relations of tone and color to those near at hand. And after this, fix on some view that includes a distance as well as a middle ground and foreground, and paint these new elements in their truthful bearings upon each other.

The same general principles apply to landscape as to figure painting, and the general directions given in the first part of this book refer equally to the method of representing any object on canvas.

The list of colors already given will also be found sufficient for painting land- scapes as well as other subjects. In setting the palette, however, we make a slight alteration in the arrangement of the second row when the colors are prepared with white.

Use for the small details and finishing touches flat pointed sables

In Nature all things as we look at then are surrounded by an envelope or atmosphere which tends to soften and tone down; this effect we must try to imitate as much as possible.

For example, where the dark hair in a portrait is seen against a light background do not allow it to form a hard, dark outline, but soften the edge by a lighter touch of grayer quality, which will unite the two.

This should not be carried to excess, however, as at times a sharp, dark accent is very valuable in the right place.

Use for the small details and finishing touches flat pointed sables, Nos.5 and 9, or where the bristle is needed select the smaller sizes.

The beard having been laid in at first in flat masses

In finishing the head, work very carefully, and beginning at the top, go over the whole, correcting, refining, strength- ening, adding a light here and an accent there, not allowing any thing to pass unnoticed that will in any way emphasize the likeness and improve your work.

A man's beard, mustache, or whiskers are painted in the same way as the hair.

The beard having been laid in at first in flat masses, the character of the beard is determined by the form of the lights, which should be carefully observed.

A smooth dark beard will have distinct broad lights, while, if curly or woolly, the lights are more irregular and broken. A soft, somewhat gray half-tint should unite the beard with the flesh.

Avoid all hard outlines, and try to express your meaning rather by forms than by lines.

The hair is now taken up and painted with more detail

The hair is now taken up and painted with more detail; the locks are softened where they meet the face, the hair assuming rather a gray tone where it falls over the forehead. Remember also that the tone of the flesh is in shadow where it is seen through the hair, and a soft gray half-tint is found at the roots of the hair, uniting them with the local flesh tone.

At each successive painting the canvas is oiled out before beginning work, and after the first laying in, where turpentine is mixed with the colors, oil is used as a medium, a little clean poppy oil being poured in the oil cups and fastened to the palette ready for use.

After the portrait is well started, the color, drawing of the features, etc., being correct, give more attention to the expression, and when you succeed in catching just the right character in any one feature leave it alone, and do not be tempted to retouch it, at least until the rest is equally satisfactory.

The mouth also is carried on with more detail

The cars, which are laid in with the local tints, are repainted with more color on the lobe and outer edge, and warm accents are added inside.

The mouth also is carried on with more detail. The upper lip is darker, and also cooler and more purple in quality of red than the under lip, which is bright and warm. Paint the upper lip with madder lake, white, light red, a little vermilion, cobalt, and ivory black. For the lower lip use vermilion, yellow ochre, madder lake, raw umber, a little ivory black, light red, and cobalt.

In the high light use vermilion, madder lake, white, yellow ochre, and a touch of ivory black.

At the corners of the mouth notice a soft tone of gray which makes an agreeable transition from the red to the local flesh tone.

The outline of the lips is also softened by a delicate gray half-tint both above and below.

In painting the nose

In painting the nose, look for the halfone along the bridge which unites the shadow with the light, put more color in the end and in nostrils, which will be a little warmer than the rest, and make a strong dark reddish accent inside, using madder lake, light red, raw umber, ivory black, yellow ochre, and white.

The shadows are also repainted, adding the dark accents on the cheek-bone over the eye, under the nose, behind the ear, etc.

On the cheek where the reddish color is seen, the shadow has more madder lake in it. The dark accents are all rich and warm, being painted with burnt sienna, yellow ochre, madder lake, cobalt, ivory black, and raw umber.

The reflected lights are yellower and redder than the general tone of the shadow, having more yellow and red.

Soften the tones into each other with the brush

The check is re-painted, giving more rose-color to the local tone by using madder lake, vermilion, white, yellow ochre, and a little ivory black.

Add the high light on the cheek bone if there is one, and the light is always lighter just there, even if the gradation is so soft as not to show much.

Soften the tones into each other with the brush, but without any other attempt at blending than this gives. Do not pass the brush over the whole surface, but unite the edges only, keeping distinct the shape of each different tone as nearly as possible while thus modeling them into one harmonious whole.

The eyelashes are not represented as separate hairs

The eyelashes are not represented as separate hairs, but by a narrow line of brownish gray shadow, showing underneath, a glimpse of warm, flesh-colored lid at the inner corner of the eye.

The form of the under lid should be carefully studied, noticing especially the little line of flesh above the lashes. The tender purple or blue gray tone under the corner of the eye is painted with madder lake, cobalt, yellow ochre, white, a little ivory black and light red.

Soften this tone gradually till it loses itself in the surrounding flesh, which must be freshly painted at the same time.

After the eyes, the rest of the face is gradually taken up and improved, the half-tints added on the temple, around the jaw, and so on. The colors already given for the half-tints on the forehead arc Used, but being a little greener in duality, more yellow ochre is needed, and also a little madder lake.

The lips are also painted in a flat tone at first

For instance; downward touches on the bridge of the nose, turning naturally around at the end and across the nostrils. The sweep of the jaw is followed by the brush, which. would then turn slightly around the curve of the cheek, taking a straighter touch at the cheek-bone, beneath the eye, and so on. It is impossible to give fixed rules for such a matter, as each artist handles his brush as best suits himself, some acquiring great skill and cleverness in its manipulation.

The lips are also painted in a flat tone at first, using vermilion, madder lake, white, light red, raw umber, yellow ochre, and ivory black.

Having thus laid in the light mass of the face, we proceed to the shadows. Mix for this a medium tone which is not equal to the darkest touches, and yet will represent the general impression of the shadow.

Remember to use the brush in the manner of a shove

Begin with the forehead, and, taking up the color with a large flat bristle brush, paint with rather short strokes, carrying this same tone downward all over the temple, cheek, jaw, nose, upper lip, and chin, till we meet the edges of the shadows, leaving out the eyes and lips just at first.

Remember to use the brush in the manner of a shovel when taking the color up from the palette, and do not try to smooth away all the brush marks, but leave them as they chance to come, unless they catch the light too much by showing little ridges. In this case reverse the movement of the brush, letting the touches take an opposite direction.

The manner of handling the brush must be learned by experience. One suggestion we offer is, to let the movement follow somewhat the forms of the face.

Ready to paint the face

When ready to paint the face, the palette should be cleaned off in the middle, leaving only the outside row of colors along the edge. The second row mixed with white, as already described in the earlier pages of this book, should be freshly arranged.

Put out plenty of each color, as the painting must be laid on thickly, a turpentine being used as a medium.

We will take, for example, a female head, of medium complexion, neither very fair nor very dark. Having already laid in the background, hair and dress, the head being carefully drawn with burnt sienna and black, we begin with the light mass of the face, and proceed to lay in a medium tint of flesh color, which is not the highest light, but, let us say, will about match the tone around the mouth and chin.

For this use silver white, yellow ochre, vermilion, madder lake, light red, a little raw umber, with a little ivory black and cobalt.

A gray surface light will also be seen on these folds

When this careful work is done for a small space, let the touches be less exact and more suggestive, though still following the general character of the pattern. In the more remote portions, very little detail is necessary beyond an occasional hint of the figures, shown by touches of light and dark in the half-tints; the large masses of shadow and light must be kept quite simple.

In painting dark, transparent materials, such as gauzes or lace, the same principle is observed but the conditions are reversed.

Black gauze over flesh is laid in with the colors used for the flesh, but in a darker, grayer tone. The folds which suggest the material should be fine, sharp lines of dark crossing the under painting, and the tones at the edges are dark also instead of light.

A gray surface light will also be seen on these folds, which will indicate the texture of the gauze.

With these suggestions as a guide, the student should practice painting various draperies, arranging his studies from the actual materials, and familiarizing himself with the different stuffs which will enter into the composition of his pictures. In this way he will also learn to observe that by the size of the folds, and their manner of hanging, the thickness and general character of such draperies are indicated, a matter that is frequently slighted, yet which is of great importance.

In painting lace or figured muslin, the principle is the same

In the same way the sleeves are painted, laying in a general tone with the colors used for painting the flesh, but making it lighter and grayer, as for the neck. After laying in the effect of the muslin over the flesh and silk in this simple way, the presence of the muslin is further made apparent by painting at the edges of the shoulders, arms, and other outlines, a soft line of light gray so light as to be almost white, and entirely uninfluenced by the color beneath; this is dragged a little over the undertone and softened till it gradually loses itself, while remaining clear and sharp at the outside edges.  A few fine sharp white lights are also put on over the tones already laid in both for the neck and bodice: these are to indicate the folds of the muslin.

In painting lace or figured muslin, the principle is the same; the general effect is laid in at first in the simple flat tones already described, the details being entirely left till a later painting, and the  folds being indicated exactly as if the material were plain transparent muslin.

The pattern of the lace is finally painted thus: take up a part of the lace which is the most prominently seen, and carefully draw in detail with small brushes the outline of the figures, using the first painting as an undertone, and putting in the high lights in the form of the pattern, while directly under each light look for the sharp dark accent of shadow which defines it, and paint it in with the small pointed brush.

To paint lace is a comparatively simple matter

To paint lace, thin muslin, or any such transparent material in which the flesh will show through, seems at first a very difficult task, but in reality, when the principle is once understood it will be found a comparatively simple matter.

To better explain, we will take for example a dress of fine white muslin very transparent in texture, worn by a young girl over a blue silk bodice with short sleeves and low neck, showing the flesh through the muslin.

In the first place, notice where the muslin covers the neck that the tone is a light grayish pink or flesh color, lighter and grayer than the actual flesh. Further clown where the blue silk bodice is seen through, the color changes to a light grayish blue, partaking of the - color of the silk, but lighter and grayer in quality.

Another excellent background is a tone of rich deep sapphire blue

Another excellent background, and one which gives color and interest, is a tone of rich deep sapphire blue. This is especially good with iron gray hair, and rather warm complexion. To paint this, use Antwerp blue, white, a little madder lake, ivory black, raw umber, and a little cadmium, adding yellow ochre and burnt sienna in the darker parts. A good tone of rich, warm brown is useful for gentlemen's portraits. This is also largely qualified with grays, and is painted with bone brown, yellow ochre, white,burnt sienna, ivory black, with permanent blue added in the cooler gray half-tints. Such a background is employed by Bonnat, the celebrated French portrait painter, in nearly all his portraits. He makes it appear like a shadowy distance by using the blue-gray tones with the brown to give atmosphere behind the head.

Another well-known  French artist, Chaplin, uses almost invariably a tone of light gray made apparently of every color of the rainbow, put on in touches somewhat like mother-of-pearl in effect. These men are such masters of their art that they can afford to be peculiar. It is not well to follow such mannerisms, however, as in other hands they become mere imitations and lose their character. Carolus Duran, the great colorist and famous portrait painter, is most realistic in all his effects.  His favorite backgrounds are the velvet and plush portieres already mentioned, with rich rugs on the floor combined with some simple and appropriate accessories. In bust portraits, where only a simple tone is used, he is always careful to place the exact color of the background behind the head of the sitter while painting, so that the values may be correctly studied. As has already been suggested, this is an excellent method and should be closely followed by the student.

After the first painting, mix with the paint a little poppy oil

After the first painting, mix with the paint a little poppy oil and siccatif de Courtray in the proportion of one drop of siccative to five of oil: this is done to make the color dry, as madder lake and bone brown dry very slowly where large quantities are used.

A very useful background for many purposes is a tone of warn gray green, growing rich and dark in the shadows. This is made with Antwerp blue, burnt sienna, white, raw umber, ivory black and yellow ochre. In the lighter, cooler tones add madder lake. A tone of amber or old gold, largely qualified by grays, makes a very striking background for a rich, dark complexion and black hair. This is painted with  yellow ochre, white, raw umber, burnt sienna, and ivory black.

In the lighter parts, deep cadmium may be used, and in the deeper tones a little permanent blue is added. Such a background is painted loosely, that is to say, not in one flat, hard, even tone, but the colors are put on the canvas without too much previous mixing, especially in the darker parts and shadows, where touches of blue, red, yellow, etc., are put on and only softened enough to make a general harmonious effect of color.

Some examples of conventional backgrounds are here given which may be found useful

In painting an out-of-door background to a picture it is well to have made some studies of flesh in the open air for a guide to the values, as the effect of light is very different from that of the ordinary studio, as previously suggested.   A made-up landscape background with the figure painted in the conventional studio light, is not good art, and is immediately detected by any one with art knowledge. For this reason we would advise the beginner to confine himself to the logical effects within his reach in the studio until he has gained sufficient experience to justify experiments.

Some examples of conventional backgrounds are here given which may be found useful. A very light, delicate, silvery blue, qualified by grays, is suitable for a baby's head, or young child with golden hair and very fair complexion.  This is painted with permanent blue or cobalt, silver white, a very little light cadmium, madder lake, and enough ivory black to give quality.

A tone of warm light gray, varying in quality according to the complexion, may be used where the hair is light, or dark brown, or even black. Use for this yellow ochre, silver white, light red, ivory black and permanent blue, adding madder lake in the cooler tones, and raw umber for a warmer quality. A rich, dark crimson is sonictimes very effective for a background, especially for a person with florid complexion, and also goes well with black hair and brilliant Lay this in with madder lake and bone brown, and a little ivory black, using turpentine for the first painting. When thoroughly dry, oil it out and re-paint, using madder lake, ivory black, bone brown, and a very little permanent blue with a very little white, if needed, in the darker parts. In the lighter tones,
use madder lake, vermilion, ivory black, and white. Use plenty of paint, putting it on thickly with large, flat bristle brushes.

This perspective must be taken into consideration

This perspective must be taken into consideration and the space regulated so that the person painted stands or sits a little back in the imaginary room, and well inside the frame. The space underfoot and in front of the figure must be painted to represent a floor of some kind. A Turkish or Persian rug is effective, and a parquet, where theboards are indicated, gives a suggestion of space and atmosphere.

With such a foreground, a full sweeping portiere of rich, heavy material, such as plush cloth or tapestry, forms an appropriate background, and a tall jar or vase holding grasses, flowers, or peacocks' feathers, composes well in this connection.

In order to avoid a perfectly straight line for the floor, pull the drapery of the portiere forward on one side, letting the end lie on the floor in irregular folds, reaching almost to the bottom of the canvas.

These general rules are merely given as guides

The mouth is considered to be the most important feature of all in regard to the expression. This can be easily seen by an old test; covering all the face, showing only the eyes, and it will be almost impossible to tell whether the expression is a smile or a frown. If the mouth alone is exposed, there is no difficulty in making the decision. When smiling, the corners of the mouth turn upward, the lips part slightly, and the lines or dimples at either side curve outward. To express sorrow, the corners droop, the lips close and the lines become straight and severe.

These general rules are merely given as guides and are not intended to be arbitrary, for of course in each face such conditions may alter somewhat, according to the individuality exhibited.

This is not accomplished all at once

This is not accomplished all at once, but in certain touches here and there, added at moments when the sitter has forgotten lie is being looked at, for the consciousness that he is painted will often produce a constrained and unnatural expression. It is therefore better not to mention just what part of the face one is working on at the moment.

There are certain muscles which by their action produce the changes of line and form in the face that influence the expression. If these changes are carefully studied, it will become comparatively easy to render different expressions in painting. To make an eye bright and animated, a dark accent is added under the upper lid, giving it more of an arch, a touch of brilliant light given to the iris and eyeball, and the pupil darkened. A sad and pensive expression is produced by drooping the upper lids, shading the white of the eye deeply under the lashes, and omitting the sparkling high light.

The effect of tears is suggested by adding a slender line of light on the eyeball just above the lower lid, extending from the outer corner almost to the iris. The white of the eye must previously be painted in a tone of soft gray. In a smiling face, the eyes are rather widely opened and the under lid raised higher in the center than at the corners. The lines of the nostrils Also influence this expression, and become elevated at the outer edges, while in a face that is sad or depressed, the nostrils will droop.

We now come to the subject of expression in portraiture

We now come to the subject of expression in portraiture, and this has a much larger significance than would at first be fancied on giving it but a casual thought. It is not merely in the subtle and evasive lines in the face, the close study and observation of which help so greatly to emphasize the likeness, that expression entirely consists, although these contribute much to its realization; but there are other attributes of personality to be considered, wherein lurk sometimes strong elements of characterization not to be overlooked, be the head itself never so well finished.

There is much in the hands that is expressive of the character, occupation, or temperament, and to so treat them that they maybe individual, personal, and forceful enough to suggest that they belong to the head of the sitter and to none other, is to emphasize the expression of your portrait.

The nervous or nerveless manner of holding the head, the stolid, phlegmatic way of sitting, or the stately and spirited carriage and bearing to be found in one sitter or another, are all qualities which, if stamped upon the portrait, add greatly to the force of its expression. In painting a portrait the artist does not attempt to get the expression during the first sitting, but after he has correctly drawn in the features, and general character of the head, and has the color well laid in and partly modeled, then it is lie begins to look for the expression of the face.

Failure to do this is an evidence of bad taste

If it is a question of a portrait in profile, in addition to the above points care space in front of the head than is left behind it. Failure to do this is an evidence of bad taste, and detracts from the proper balance or composition of the work.

These directions should he followed in regard to whatever objects may be introduced as accessories to the portrait, for it should be remembered that the skillful composition of a picture is an expression of the taste and intelligence of the painter.

Avoid repetition of lines or spaces when they do not serve some logical purpose. Vary as much as is consistent with simplicity and naturalness the position of the arms, shoulders, and hands, so that there shall be no danger of their suggesting geometrical exactitude of line.  It is surprising how prone one is to repeat the direction of lines in arranging a composition.

The folds of a dress, or the lines of a shawl or scarf, may make or mar the composition of a portrait. Every thing depends on the use made of such natural and legitimate material as is at hand. It is not necessary to go outside of the question and drag into the picture some irrelevant object to contribute to the richness of the composition. Remember that the most fitting is always the best.

Composition is supposed to belong only to those departments of painting known as "genre"

It is not generally appreciated that the element of what is called composition enters largely into the making of a portrait. Composition is supposed to belong only to those departments of painting known as "genre," or historical or landscape. Nothing could be further from the mark, for composition has to do with every branch of artistic effort; it is indeed one of the most cogent qualities that entitles a picture to be called a work of art. It is the art that conceals art, but which is always and necessarily there.

In portraiture, composition is to be found, if looked for, in the adjustment of the figure to its surroundings, so that the spaces of the canvas not occupied by the figure itself may not be without interest, but unobtrusively lend their aid in directing the attention to the purpose of the work which is to represent a human being in a familiar and natural environment. To do this well is to achieve much, although it might be at first looked upon as an ordinary and unimportant accomplishment.

In endeavoring to effect this desirable end, let the student first of all give special attention to the position of the head upon the canvas. It should be neither too high nor too low. If in a bust portrait, the first error will tend to make the lower half of the canvas uninteresting, revealing a mass of dress which will outbalance the head; and the second mistake disturbs the interest by causing too great an area of background to display itself, and by giving an undignified suggestion of the figure sinking alto-
gether out of the frame.

Towards the Background of Western Craft new Chapter

Admitted to craft college in Los Angeles in 1928, arrived into get in touch with with European modernist art, specially surrealism craft in Europe highlighted the subconscious actions of interest. 1930 moved to New York, studying at ny craft Students' Federation, 1947, Pollock started with an abstract strategy towards the canvas store flooring to intuition and opportunity overall performance from the artist's subconscious elements that produce the 1st actions painting. 1947, "Times" newspaper carried a entire site of his report, in 1949, he grew to become the "Life" newspaper article, the primary characters is pretty important, specially for visitors as nicely as the public, Pollock has turn out to be the modern day craft among the symbols - strange, incomprehensible, foolish, however pretty very exciting. In 1954, Pollock held his final show, following his development turn out to be slow and sluggish, after which again, he progressively ceased writing. a single day time in August 1956, he took his lover and an additional buddy drove traveling inside a auto incident around the way home, he was thrown from your automobile and died around the spot, but he produced the "Action Painting" is additional towards the background of Western craft new chapter.

In painting still life subjects it should be remembered that one great charm of such pictures is their realism

Another, a string of fish, and copper kettle, also oysters on the half shell, arranged on a plate, and a wine glass of sherry. A beautiful study of color is found in vegetables of different kinds. Take, for example, a green cabbage, some red tomatoes, beets, large yellow crooked-necked squashes, cucumbers, and feathery herbs; arrange them on a pine table, with a dark, rich gray wall, partly in shadow, for a background.  Let a tall gray and blue jar stand far back, the vegetables piled in front, and yogi have a most interesting subject.

Bric-a-brac, rich pottery and drapery furnish picturesque still life compositions. In fact any objects that attract and please the eye in nature and suggest agreeable combinations of color may be utilized for such studies.

In painting still life subjects it should be remembered that one great charm of such pictures is their realism. This quality is only obtained by closely studying nature and interpreting as truthfully as possible each object in its proper value.

Some subjects for studies V

The pale blue paper is painted with permanent blue, white, a little ivory black, and light red. In the shadows use the same colors, but substitute burnt sienna for light red and add raw umber. All the objects being laid in, giving the general effect of the whole, we return to the background and finish that. If there is an elaborate pattern in the material it must be treated in the following manner:

The most prominent part, that which most attracts the eye, is taken up, and with small brushes, that portion of the design is carefully painted in detail, using the medium gray already laid in as a ground work.

This part being carefully painted, the rest is merely suggested, by touches of color following the general direction of the design yet without attempting to go much into detail.

In the deep shadow, the background presents almost one flat, even tone, with rich touches of color broken in occasionally in the part nearest the light. The highest light on the background is also kept simple without much detail. The background must be managed so as not to attract too much attention, as the principal interest should be centered in the subject itself.

Some other interesting still life studies are - some old books, one lying open, the others carelessly arranged with strong effect of light and shade. Another subject is a stone jug and glass half full of beer, with plate of crackers and cheese.

Some subjects for studies IV

The edges of the cut glass are very light, almost white. The little cup occupied by the ink in the center of the glass is clearly defined by a very dark tone of gray, almost black.  The high light striking on the surface of the glass makes a spot of brilliant white on this dark gray, thus indicating the texture of the material.

In painting this inkstand lay in the part where the background shows through the glass with a general tone, using the colors given for the background, but using more black and white; then, while still fresh, take a very small flat brush and touch on the high lights along the edges of the cut glass. Use for these lights, white and a little yellow ochre, with a little ivory black, cobalt and light red. Make with these a very light gray tone and in the very highest lights use only white, yellow ochre, and a very little black. Where the ink is seen through the glass, paint the very dark gray tone with ivory black, burnt sienna, a little permanent blue, and as much silver white as is necessary.

For the general painting of such an object, use flat bristle brushes about half an inch in width, taking the smallest size for half-tints and details. Use the flat pointed sables No.5 for fine drawing and small touches in finishing. The red scaling wax is painted with vermilion, light red, madder lake, white and a little ivory black for the general tone.

In the shadows use light red, madder lake, permanent blue, raw umber, a little ivory black and what white is needed. Paint the deeper accents with burnt sienna and ivory black. For the high lights, use vermilion, madder lake, white, a little yellow ochre, and enough ivory black to give quality. In painting the bronze ash receiver, be careful to show the difference between that and the color of the brass candlestick.  Lay in the bronze with a general tone made with yellow ochre, white, raw umber, burnt sienna, and a little ivory black. In the shadows use the same colors, but add a little permanent blue. Paint the high lights with yellow ochre, white, raw umber, and ivory black.

Some subjects for studies III

Paint the whole in one general tone, omitting the high lights and strongest shadows. These arc put in afterward, using a clean brush for the lights, for which mix silver white, Antwerp blue, a little cadmium, and madder lake with a little ivory black, letting the white and blue predominate.

Take up plenty of paint on the large bristle brush, and put it on crisply with firm touches, carefully studying the exact shape and location of the lights.

Do not attempt to blend or retouch, but drag the edges of the light a little over the general tone. In this same way paint each object, laying in general tones at first, and putting on the lights and  shadows afterward, proceeding to work up the details, and gradually carrying the whole toward completion in the manner described in the previous chapter.

To paint brass candle-sticks, mix for the general tone, light cadmium, yellow ochre, silver white, raw umber and a little ivory black.

In the shadows use yellow ochre, white, burnt sienna, raw umber, a little permanent blue and ivory black. The high lights, which are put on with a small brush, are made with white cadmium, a little raw umber and a very little ivory black.

The white paper is painted first in a general tone of very light delicate creamy gray, using silver white, yellow ochre, a very little ivory black, permanent blue and light red. The high lights are  then touched in sharply with silver white, qualified by a little yellow ochre and a mere touch of ivory black. The colors used for the shadows are a little silver white, with yellow ochre, ivory black, permanent blue and light red. Certain deep small touches occur in shadows which are called "accents," and these are always warmer and richer in color than the general shadow. For example, where one sheet of paper overlaps another, both being in shadow, a sharp, dark line is found beneath the upper sheet. Paint these accents with ivoryblack, burnt sienna and a little permanent blue.

In painting the glass inkstand, notice that the color of the transparent glass is affected by every object seen through it. For example, the background showing through the glass, in parts gives it a tone of warm gray somewhat lighter than the background itself, but partaking of the same colors.

Some subjects for studies II

A background of such mixed colors is treated in the following way:

Half closing the eyes, a general effect of color is obtained, in which for the moment the details of the pattern are obscured. We therefore lay in a first painting of warm gray with a pervading feeling of red and yellow, For this, use raw umber, white, permanent blue, light red, yellow ochre, madder lake and ivory black.

Take out some of each color on the palette, and with the knife, rub them together a little, but not in one dead mass of uniform tone.

With a large bristle brush take up as much of this mixture as possible, using the brush somewhat in the manner of a shovel, and transfer it to the canvas, having put in a few drops of turpentine. Use the brush in short, rather quick strokes, not all in the same direction, but varying the touch agreeably, yet always so that the brush marks will not catch the light. Proceed in this way until the background is covered with a gray tone, which suggests the general effect of the stuff, yet is without actual detail of any kind.

While drying, lay in the tablecloth. For this dark sapphire blue mix Ant, werp blue, silver white, and very little light cadmium, madder lake, ivory black and a little raw umber.

Plush in this light will present almost one uniform tone of dark rich blue, with here and there soft silvery lights broken upon it. In the shadows thrown by the objects, this general tone becomes darker and warmer.

With a smaller bristle brush than that used for the background, the tablecloth is laid in, using the brush in very much the same way as before, yet working more carefully so as to preserve the drawing of the objects upon the table.

Some subjects for studies I

The following is an example of a still life composition which may be easily arranged:

A small writing-table is covered with dark sapphire blue velvet or plush. A little left of the center, and far back on the table, stands a large heavy crystal inkstand, set in a small japanned tray. Some sheets of very pale blue and creamy white note paper, with one or two envelopes, lie carelessly to the right, and partly in front of the inkstand.

On the left is a small brass candlestick, holding a white wax candle, and across its base are thrown a white quill, and a steel pen with polished black handle.

In the foreground to the left of the center is a small bronze ash holder, against which lies a stick of red sealing- wax with one end resting on the table, and partly in front of the inkstand. On top of the writing paper is thrown an old envelope which has been opened, showing a large red seal partly broken.

The background to this study is a piece of Persian stuff of mixed colors, rich and harmonious in tone. This could be replaced by the wrong side of an Indian or broche shawl. This drapery hangs straight, as if on a wall or screen directly behind the table.

Let this study be placed in front of a window, a little to one side, and arranged with the end of the table toward the window. In this way the light and shade will be agreeably distributed.

In composing such a study it is important to avoid all appearance of stiffness and regularity. As a rule, the prominent central object should not be exactly in the middle of the canvas, but a little to one side. And it is important also that two objects of the same general size and height should not be placed equally distant from a central object.

The study is first sketched in with charcoal, and then outlined with burnt sienna and ivory black diluted with turpentine as already described.

Ready to study to paint portraits or figures

Before beginning to paint portraits or figures from life, it is well to make preparatory studies of different objects - such as still life, drapery, flowers, etc.

Perhaps the studies most ready to hand, most available to the student who may be in some way removed from the facilities of art study to be found in large cities, are those of still life. This term is understood to signify any inanimate object or objects arranged for artistic study and delineation.

As a means of study this arrangement may be coherent or incoherent; it may be meaningless or full of significance. We would, however, suggest that the student always invest this group of objects with the interest of logical proximity. For instance, an orange and an inkstand have nothing in common, while an inkstand, sealing-wax, pen and paper, have, as also has the orange on a plate with nuts and raisins. The orange and inkstand subjected to an effect of light and shade will serve all purposes of study, but they will always be incongruous and consequently uninteresting. Studies of still life are capable of being treated with much artistic force and a lively pictorial interest. Splendid stuffs may be painted, rich and significant groups of varied tones and textures may be thrown together, making a pell-mell of gorgeous coloring that will excite the eye and stimulate the imagination. Some of the old masters appreciated the availability of such subjects by introducing large spaces of still life accessories into many of their important works.

In arranging studies for still life, seek for harmony of color, form, etc., and place objects so as to receive the most effective mass of light and shade. Try to express as faithfully as possible the various textures of the materials before you. Paint the hard objects so that they look hard, and the soft ones so that they may appear unmistakably soft.

All material things that are reasonably available as objects of study, may be used as models in this branch of art. None are too common, and many are full of beauty.

The brushes should be washed every day

The brushes should be washed every day, after painting, and not carelessly stuck into a jar of water, oil or turpentine until needed again, as sometimes recommended. If left too long in water the handles will shrink when dry and fall off from the brushes.  If soaked in turpentine the hairs become stiff and gummed together, and oil will in time produce a very similar result.

If a large bristle brush is very full of paint it may first be dipped in turpentine to loosen the color and then wiped off with a rag, but must always be well washed in soap and water afterward.

It is also practicable, if one is pressed for time, to leave the bristle brushes over night in water.

This, however, must never be done with the sables, as if allowed to stand in water any time the hairs become rough and lose all elasticity.

The best and simplest way of washing brushes is to use soft soap and waterwhat the French students call " savonnoir" is the best.  If that can not be procured the softest bar of common brown washing soap will do very well. Put this into a pan of soft water, and, holding several brushes in the right hand, rub them well with the softened soap; then holding the sticks in an upright position, scrub the brushes round and round in the, center of the left palm, making a lather; this will eventually clean the bristles thoroughly, but takes some little time. The sables should be washed separately and need not be rubbed hard. Rinse all the brushes in clean water and then dry thoroughly with a clean rag; shape the hair of the sables into a point with the mouth or fingers so that the hairs will not spread and catch the dust.

STRETCHING THE CANVAS

The canvas to be stretched is cut about three-quarters of an inch larger all around than the actual size of the stretcher. The necessary tools are a small hammer, a chisel, some tacks, and a pair of pincers with teeth, which can be obtained of any dealer in artists' materials, and are manufactured purposely for stretching canvas.

Begin by placing the stretcher in the middle of the canvas, leaving a margin of the same width all around. Turn the projecting canvas over the edge of the stretcher at the top, and put a tack just in the middle; then pulling the canvas as tightly as possible, place a tack in the bottom and one in the center of each side respectively, always turning over the edges.

This accomplished, look at the front and see that the canvas is evenly placed, not pulled crooked or stretched bias.

If it appears to be right, put in several more tacks, fastening down the corners first, and then place tacks systematically about an inch and a quarter apart all around until complete. The pincers are used to pull the canvas as tightly as possible and hold it in place each time a tack is put in.

If a mistake is made, the tacks are loosened with the small chisel and carefully taken out so as not to tear the canvas.

Oval stretchers are so seldom used by artists that no directions in regard to them are necessary. If desired, they must be ordered from a dealer, as they are very complicated in construction and difficult to stretch.

The stretcher is necessary

A stretcher consists of four flat bars of wood mortised together at the corners somewhat after the fashion of a boy's slate, the pieces being cut so as to fit into each other closely, yet without glueing. These bars may be any width or thickness desired, according to the size of the canvas, from an inch and a quarter wide upward, and from half an inch to an inch in thickness.

The four corners being joined, the sides form a square or oblong square, which is kept in shape permanently by the canvas. The upper side of the bars, upon which the canvas is laid, should be perfectly smooth, the wood being planed off evenly, and beveled slightly inwards. To complete the stretcher a set of light, flat, thin, wedge-shaped, triangular bits of wood are made, two for each corner. The pointed ends of these wedges, which are called "keys," are inserted between the joints at the angles of the stretcher; the object of this is to tighten the canvas by separating the corners of the stretcher as much as necessary. The keys are of course on the under side, and a slight tap from a hammer on each key in succession will cause the mor- tised joints to spring apart as far as the canvas will permit. This operation is called "keying up" a canvas, and is very necessary, when it becomes wrinkled or hangs loosely on the stretcher.

Oiling out

To do this, the paint being perfectly dry, a large, clean, flat bristle brush is clipped into poppy oil and rapidly passed all over the canvas, rubbing the oil well in with the brush. A clean rag is then used, and the whole surface wiped off, thus removing the superfluous oil but leaving enough to soften the paint sufficiently.  A little oil is poured into the oil cup for working purposes and fastened to the palette, as after the first painting turpentine is dis- carded, and oil used for a medium. In taking up the second painting, begin by adding the half-tints which unite the masses of shadow to the masses of light, and repaint the shadows, softening and refining the color; strengthening the darks and putting in the reflected lights.  In the same way the light masses are treated, heightening the color where necessary, and generally improving the effect. The high lights are added with crisp touches that must not be blended, and the details are put in.

It is well to have the parts which are adjacent freshly painted at the same time, such as the light, half-tint, and shadow, so that the edge of the half-tint may be dragged into the shadow, and the edge of the light into the half-tint.  This pro- duces a soft and agreeable effect without destroying the form. In finishing, smaller brushes are used, fine sables, 5 to 9, for fine touches and small details. The painter should at the last carefully overlook every portion of his work, adding touches here and there, softening, strengthening and improving wherever possible. If it is necessary to paint every day upon the same canvas, it is better to add one drop of Siccatif de Courtray to every five drops of oil, as a little of this mixed with the colors causes them to dry more quickly.

In painting upon canvas it is always best to have it stretched if possible. All dealers keep canvas prepared in assorted sizes upon wooden stretchers at moderate cost.

Some artists living at a distance from cities find it more advantageous to stretch their own canvas, and therefore procure it in rolls by the yard and get the stretchers made by a carpenter.

The subject to be painted is divided into two simple masses of light and shade

This is only for the first painting, or "layingin," as it is called, as after this, oil is used as a medium, when any is necessary. In beginning to paint, it is always well to put in a background first of all. This need be only laid in at first-in its general effect; any details and elaboration being left till a later painting. If there is a great deal of canvas to be covered with the same tone of background, take up the colors with the palette knife and bring them down to the clean space in the middle of the palette, mixing them together until the right shade is obtained. The way to use turpentine is to dip the brush into the turpentine cup and take out a few drops upon the palette. This same brush is used in painting, and the color will naturally mix with the turpentine upon the palette. In painting the background use plenty of paint, put it on thickly with the brush, trying only for the general impression at first.

After the background has been laid in, proceed to take up the subject of the painting in the following manner:

The subject to be painted is divided into two simple masses of light and shade. The general effect having been already sketched in with burnt sienna, ivory-black and turpentine, commence with the lights and paint these in with one flat, even tone, avoiding all half tints and details of any kind at first. Select a medium tone of light which is not by any means the lightest. The masses of shadow are treated in the same way, a medium tone being chosen which is painted in as simply as possible in one flat, even mass. In this first painting, as before said, there is no attempt at detail of any kind beyond the general forms of the features, which must of course be followed. A flat bristle brush is used, keeping one for the dark shades, and another exclu- sively for the lights; these brushes should be as large as is consistent with the size of the subject to be painted.

Before beginning the second painting it is important that the first should bethoroughly dry. In some cases this may take several days; in fact, some artists always leave their first laying in, which has been very heavily painted, to dry for weeks or even months before taking up the canvas again. In case of a large and important picture this is an excellent plan if one can afford the time, for the paint becomes hard dry, so that when used as a foundation and covered over with fresh paint, the colorwill not sink in or be absorbed, as is the casewhen the underpainting is not so very dry. The canvas should now be scraped down with a sharp palette knife or scraper. This is held with the blade at right angles to the surface and grasped firmly in the hand so that it will not slip and cut the canvas. All the unnecessary roughness is scraped off, but without leaving the paint too smooth. This leaves a delightful texture to paint upon. Some artists use fine sand-paper for this purpose, wetting it a little before rubbing. When ready for the second painting begin by "oiling out" the canvas.

No matter what the subject of the painting may be the palette is always "set" in much the same manner

After having sketched in the subject to be painted with charcoal, and laid in the outline and shadows with burnt sienna, black, and turpentine as already described, clean off the palette with a rag, and then put out the colors in regular order, according to the diagram and previous directions.

No matter what the subject of the painting may be the palette is always "set" in much the same manner, though additional colors are added in special cases when necessary. Select the brushes for the day's work according to the size of the subject to be treated, and let the paint-box lie on a chair or table conveniently near. The palette is held in the left hand while working, the thumb being thrust through the hole made for that purpose. The sheaf or bunch of brushes which are to be used are placed so that their handles are held by the other fingers of the left hand, thus resting against the palette in the groove which is cut near the thumb hole; the tops of the brushes are seen above the level of the palette and arrange themselves conveniently so that the painter can select the Yom" is wishes to use from time to time. It is not necessary to hold many brushes in the hand; five or six are plenty, and even less, perhaps, for the box is at hand to resort to, and too many at once are awkward to manage.

For those who have never been taught how to manage the palette, a hint is given. Do not hold it upside down ; this mis- take may be easily made, though to those who know, it would seem almost impos- sible. It will be noticed that the thumb-hole is not placed exactly in the middle, but nearer to one edge than the other.  Hold the palette so that the narrowest space between the hole and the edge comes nearest to the body, leaving the wider space on the other side for the setting of the colors. In the first painting, turpentine is generally used to mix with the paints, as it dries them very quickly.

General directions for painting

The method of painting once learned applies to every kind of subject; it is not necessary to have a different method for each thing one wishes to paint. Beginning with a good foundation in drawing, which is indispensable, and having learned the use of the colors and mastered the general principles of art, the student is prepared to paint any object that is put before him. To do this well, however, requires time, constant practice, and patient study from nature.

The most difficult thing to paint is the human face and figure. For this reason the art students in Europe are always trained to draw thoroughly from life, no matter what special direction their talents may afterward assume. Landscape painters, flower painters, and those who have devoted themselves to still-life subjects, have all the same rigid preliminary training. The student therefore can not be too careful or thorough in studying drawing before beginning to paint. Do not depend upon copying any more than is absolutely necessary. In attempting to paint, when one has no teacher, it is well to copy at first a few good things that will help to teach the use of the colors and manner of using the brush. After this, begin to study at once from nature. The simplest arrangement of a flower or two, a vase, or a piece of drapery is worth more than all the copies in the world. It is your own.

Preparing to paint

The canvas is placed upon the easel in a good light, and the object to be painted being conveniently arranged, the outline and general proportions are sketched in upon the canvas with a stick of charcoal sharpened to a point. If mistakes are made, they are corrected by rubbing off the charcoal with a clean rag or a bristle brush.

When this drawing is sufficiently correct, if it is any thing very important, such as a likeness, it is better to "fix" the charcoal on the canvas before proceeding further. This is done by using fixative, and spraying it through an atomizer. Any ordinary fixative will do for this, as it is merely to keep the charcoal from rubbing off before it is painted over.  The little glass atomizers can be ordered from any dealer in colors, costing about 25 cents each.

Another way to secure the charcoal is to run through all the charcoal lines with a lead pencil ; this, however, takes much longer, and is not so satisfactory as to use the fixative. After the charcoal has been fixed, dust or blow off any superfluous particles. Now put out upon the palette, which has not yet been arranged for painting, some burnt sienna and ivory-black. A little turpentine is poured into one of the oil cups and fastened to the right-hand corner of the palette on the outside edge. The burnt sienna and ivory-black are mixed together till a tone of rich reddish brown is obtained ; a little turpentine is taken out of the cup with a brush and mixed with the color.

With a small flat-pointed sable-brush follow carefully the outlines of the charcoal sketch; then outline also the form of the shadows where they meet the lights, dividing them into simple masses, and with a flat bristle brush rub in a tone made of burnt sienna and ivory-black, diluted with turpentine so as to be very light and thin, entirely filling in the shadows with a flat, even tone. Do not attempt to put in any details, reflected lights, or half tints, but merely block in the whole in the manner described, leaving a strong simple effect of light and shade. All paintings, no matter what the subject, should be begun in this way. When the drawing is thus secured, and the shadows indicated, one is left free to give the whole attention to the color. If in using the burnt sienna and ivory-black any mistakes are made, the paint may be entirely taken off by clipping a rag into a little pure turpentine and rubbing it over the place.